Human behavior analysis is the study of why people behave the way they do, what can be done about it, and how.

            The study of human behavior is based on a rigorous experimental science of behavior (Sidman, 1960; Skinner, 1953, see references below), generally referred to as the "experimental analysis of behavior." (In fact, as also noted below, there is a top research journal entitled, Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior).
            The information collected from the scientific study of human behavior is referred to as Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA). (Yet again, as noted below, there is another top research journal appropriately entitled, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis.)

            Not surprisingly, ABA has spawned a number of euphemisms: operant conditioning, behavior modification, contingency management, responsive teaching, direct instruction, zero-inference instruction, functional analysis of behavior, among many other terms of varying degrees of endearment. Why the variety of terminology? Well, the fact is that where people stand (e.g., the term one selects) depends on where they sit (e.g., in a public school bureaucracy; in a non-tenured teaching slot looking for a new way to package established literature; in a lecture seat at an ABA conference vs. at an existential conference; in a professorship chair looking for a new term to finally launch a career; etc.).
     When the rhetoric and bias are stripped away and the core concepts, principles, and rules are understood, all chairs and seats are imprinted with pretty much the same inescapable fact: behavior analysis is the study of why people behave the way they do, what can be done about it, and how.
         It gets better: ABA can be further defined by two terms, each containing two words -- contingency management, and operant conditioning. Understand contingency management and operant conditioning and you understand what functional behavior analysis is mostly all about. The carefully selected set of references listed below will get you started. In fact, serious study of the 15 references marked with an * will get the job of understanding ABA done quite efficiently.

         The emphasis of IDEA on ABA amounts to same wine, new bottle. Notice the publication dates on the vast majority of references listed below; ABA has been around a very long time. Behavior analysis in fact traces its origin at least back to the study of basic conditioning processes and their impact on learning patterns. Inspired by the early work of Watson and the more contemporary research of B. F. Skinner, behavior analysts have developed a set of fundamental tenets that establish a predictable and reliable relationship between behavior and consequences of behavior within a clearly defined environmental context. In short, appropriately used, ABA gets people to do what they otherwise resist.

     Human behavior analysis involves five major tenets: (1) If something exists, it exists in some amount and can be measured. (2) The focus of measurement is human behavior. Direct measurement of behavior through systematic observation and recording techniques can verify the success (or failure) of a teaching approach or behavioral intervention. (3) Human behavior is in large part governed by the "Law of Effect" -- that is, the consequences of behavior generally determine whether or not that behavior will be repeated. (Example: If we engage in a behavior that leads to certain results [incarceration, tax lien, ostracism], the chances are we will not repeat that behavior. On the other hand, if a behavior leads to pleasing, pleasant results, the behavior is likely to be repeated.) (4) The two main classes of consequences are "rewards" (reinforcement) and "aversives" (punishment). By definition, behavior that repeats is behavior that was reinforced (the consequences were rewarding, pleasant, encouraging). Alternatively, behavior that is not repeated was punished ("Hell, I'll never do that again!"). (5) Context determines "learned behavior." Behavior exhibited in America or Australia (gum chewing, jay-walking) would be prohibited in another context (how do you spell Singapore!). Behavior unpunished in New York (drinking beer in public) would be immediately punished in small town America. Behavior exhibited in some public schools ("dissing" females, carrying weapons, insulting teachers) would be unheard of in most private schools. Context defines content.

       Decades of research and practical applications document the success of behavior change strategies. When it comes to behavioral technology, time and again applied research has found: (1) Human behavior in general can be brought under predictable instructional control through the application of a behavioral technology (Hewett, 1965; Itard, 1962; Kazdin, 1978, 1994; Scarr, 1979; Seguin, 1907; Wolf et al, 1964, 1967). (2) Applied behavioral technology has proved over the years to be a parsimonious approach to teaching the handicapped (Bijou, 1972, 1979; Bijou & Baer, 1978; Etzel & LeBlanc, 1979; Lovaas & Koegel, 1973). That is, behavioral gains generally relate directly to systematic instructional programming strategies (Newsom et al., 1979). (3) In contrast, treatment strategies that are psychoanalytic (Bettelheim, 1967), psychodynamic (e.g., Oppenheim, 1974), that presume bio-chemical brain dysfunction (e.g., Rimland, 1964), or infer an "emotional deficiency" either in the students or parents (Creak & Ini, 1960; Pitfield & Oppenheim, 1964; Schopler & Reichler, 1972) have in the past too often led to an unhappy ending. In short, "therapists felt they were giving a lot but not getting much back" in the way of treatment gains (Lovaas et al., 1978, p. 388; cf. Kozloff, 1973). (4) Ceteris paribus ("all else being equal") behavioral principles and instructional rules represent a parsimonious approach to teaching the learning handicapped.
         For a review of the success of ABA, visit 17 Rules of Instruction elsewhere on this website.

Some irreducible questions and answers

     Can you learn ABA through a weekend or after-school workshops? Absolutely not. Such gatherings employ bureaucrats and often earn teachers extra money, but otherwise, save your time. Such seminars and workshops are excellent for reviewing relevant law, important rules, and guiding principles .... but little else. Great for review. Good for consultants. Humorously ineffective for teaching/ learning ABA.

     How can you learn ABA? Enroll in a reputable college course sequence taught by a recognized individual competent in ABA. You will need 2-3 intensive courses plus 2-3 closely monitored and evaluated projects that involve the application of the coursework to applied problems in real-life public school settings. Many leading special education and psychology college programs are well-known in the area of ABA: Univ. of Kansas, Peabody College in Nashville, Univ. of Wisconsin/Madison, Univ of San Francisco, Stony Brook on Long Island, Univ of Florida .... see the section of this website where the leading schools (and publishing professors) are listed for more information Special Education programs.
         Finally, you can begin the ABA-learning process by reading several of the major references listed below. To help you along, 15 of the readings are marked with an *. Read them and you are well on your way when you enroll in your first quality college course in ABA.

     Once learned, can I apply my ABA knowledge in the classroom? The good news is yes. You indeed can use your honed ABA skills with your students. The bad news is that -- if tradition, logic, and experience are any guide -- your well-found efforts will probably be in vain.
         As stated elsewhere on this website, the sine qua non of learning is generalization (click) (see also the classic Stokes and Baer article listed below). The success of generalization depends mightily on the support and backing of school administration and all school personnel who have contact with the student.
         Truth be known, public schools are notorious for harboring administrators who either have not a clue about ABA or who lack the enthusiasm (no, zeal) to get the ABA job done. Public schools are equally notorious for enjoying union contracts which have very little interest in classroom learning and great enthusiasm (yes, zeal) for paper compliance.
         As a result, uncaring teachers can succeed in doing very little. And ABA in general and generalization in particular require a lot of effort, a plethora of caring, and a unswerving commitment to research-based instructional practice. Won't happen in public schools, almost without exception. (Which is a major reason why many caring parents able to afford the tuition want their children in union-less, tightly regulated, highly accountable private schools.)

     So why am I wasting my time? You're not. Learning new information is never a waste of time, to begin with. Also, there are pockets of competence in a handful of public schools in most city schooling systems. Your task is to find them and get there. In addition, more and more ABA-competent teachers are moving over to private schools. True, the salaries are lower and the fringe benefits fewer. Yet the satisfaction and accomplishment that accompany classroom success for many teachers in private settings outweigh many other considerations. Give it some thought -- and give it a go!

     Is it that bad? Indeed. And cynicism has nothing to do with the issue. Generalization, not cynicism, is the issue. And generalization cannot succeed without school-wide support. And such support is not forthcoming in most public schools, especially large city schooling bureaucracies -- where, incidentally, most learning handicapped students are "educated."
    &nbspDon't forget: You and I read volumes about the great successes in Madison, Nashville, Lawrence and other small cities. But bear in mind that the prototype successes proclaimed in these mini-cities involve and affect a miniscule fraction of the overall learning handicapped student population. What about the tens of thousands of handicapped students in major population centers?
    &nbspWhen is the last time you heard about or read in the research literature about similar successes in the large cities, cities "where the kids are" -- in New York, Chicago, LA, Detroit, Miami? Indeed, you haven't!
    &nbspYet, time and again classroom teachers are expected to attend lectures where a "big name" rattles on and on about his or her successes in small town America. (Some of them even duck over to England, Sweden, Australia, or New Zealand to wax gleefully about "how it should be done.")
    &nbspIn the end, of course, these trouble makers blow into a big city, expect their model to be adopted, plugged in, and turned on -- and when the problems erupt, they are nowhere to be found! So don't be fooled into thinking some one else knows more about your teaching situation than you, the parents, and a competent school administration. You know best!

     OK, how can I get started NOW? Note the list of references below. Try your best to read those marked with an *. If those references are too many in number, here are some suggestions: Please read at least the following: Gage, Reese, Hall, Kazdin's Applied..., Sidman -- in that order! They provide absolutely exquisite introductory material. And the fact is, if you can get a rudimentary grasp of those 5 books, you will know a whole lot more than most "consultants" and workshop "leaders" you find forced to endure. Trust me. I've "been there". Enjoy!

 

ABA Resources

Check out these other resources online. If you like them, visit your local college library and read, read, read! (If there is a resource you love that I've missed, please email me. Thanks.)

The Behavior Analyst	Behavior Modification
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis(JABA)	PsycSCAN: Behavior Analysis & Therapy
Div25 of the APA: Experimental Analysis of Behavior	Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB)
Research in Developmental Disabilities	Psychological Bulletin
Psychological Review	Child Development (Intermittent link!)
Computers in Human Behavior	Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry
Environment & Behavior	Learning and Motivation
Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice	Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
	Assessment

(P.S.: Review this and all STEPPE/Hedbring reference lists often; they are in constant flux as new literature is uncovered, recommended, or encountered. We are all in this together, so please be quick and eager to point out errors or additional literature you find compelling. I am but an email away! Thank you.)   ABA REFERENCES * Alberto, P.A., & Troutman, A.C. (1995). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (4th edition). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall. Axelrod, S. (1983). Behavior modification for the classroom teacher. New York: McGraw-Hill. Axelrod, S., & VanHouten, R. (Eds.). (1993). Behavior analysis and treatment. New York: Plenum. * Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 91-97. Baer, D.M. (1978). On the relation between basic and applied research. In A.C. Catania & T.A. Brigham (Eds.), Handbook of applied behavior analysis: Social and instructional processes (pp. 11-16). New York: Irvington Press. * Baer, D.M. (1982). Applied behavior analysis. In C.T. Wilson & C.M. Franks (Eds.), Contemporary behavior therapy (pp. 277-309). New York: Guilford. Baer, D.M., & Sherman, J.A. (1970). Behavior modification: Clinical and educational applications. In H.W. Reese & L.P. Lipsitt (Eds.), Experimental child psychology (pp. 643-672). New York: Academic Press. * Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1987). Some still-current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 313-327. Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Baum, W.M. (1994). Understanding behaviorism: Science, behavior, and culture. New York: Harper & Collins. Becker, W.C. (1986). Applied psychology for teachers: A cognitive behavioral approach. Chicago: Science Research Associates. * Bellack, A.S., & Hersen, M. (1970). Behavior Modification: An introductory textbook. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkens. Bijou, S.W., & Baer, D.M. (1978). Child development: A behavior analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bijou, S.W., & Ruiz, R. (Eds.). (1981). Behavior modification: Contributions to education. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Cooper, J.O. (1981). Measuring Behavior (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill. Deitz, S.M. (1978). Current status of applied behavior analysis: Science vs. technology. American Psychologist, 33, 805-814. Elliott, S.N. (1988). Acceptability of behavioral treatments: Review of variables that influence treatment selection. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19, 68-80. Epling, W.F., & Pierce, W.D. (1986). The basic importance of applied behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst, 9, 89-99. Evans, L., & Bradley-Johnson, S. (1988). A review of recently developed measures of adaptive behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 25, 276-287. * Gage, N.L. (1978). The scientific basis of the art of teaching. New York: Teachers College Press. Gardner, R., Sainato, D.M., Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E., Heward, W.L., Eshleman, J., & Grossi, T.A. (Eds.). (1994). Behavior analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Grossberg, J.M. (1964). Behavior therapy: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 62, 73-88. Hall, R.V. (1971). Managing behavior 1: The measurement of behavior. Lawrence, KS: H & H Enterprises. * Hall, R.V. (1971). Behavior Modification: Basic principles. Lawrence, KS: H & H Enterprises. Hall, R.V. (1991). Behavior analysis and education: An unfulfilled dream. Journal of Behavioral Education, 1, 305-316. Holland, J.G., & Skinner, B.F. (1961). The analysis of behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill. Johnston, J.M., & Pennypacker, H.S. (1992). Strategies and tactics of behavioral research (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Koorland, M.A. (1986). Applied behavior analysis and the correction of learning disabilities. In J.K. Torgesen & B.Y.L. Wong (Eds.), Psychological and educational perspectives on learning disabilities (pp. 297-326). San Diego: Academic Press. Pierce, W.D., & Epling, W.F. (1980). What happened to analysis in applied behavior analysis? The Behavior Analyst, 3, 1-9. Kazdin, A.E. (1975). Characteristics and trends in applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8, 332. Kazdin, A.E. (1977). The token economy: A review and evaluation. New York: Plenum. Kazdin, A.E. (1977). Artifact, bias, and complexity of assessment: The ABCs of reliability. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 141-150. * Kazdin, A.E. (1978). History of behavior modification: Experimental foundations of contemporary research. Baltimore: University Park Press. Kazdin, A.E. (1979). Unobtrusive measures in behavioral assessment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 12, 713-724. Kazdin, A.E. (1981). Behavior modification in education: Contributions and limitations. Developmental Review, 1, 34-57. Kazdin, A.E. (1982). Applying behavioral principles in the schools. In C.R. Reynolds & T.B. Gutkin (Eds.), The handbook of school psychology (pp. 501-529). New York: Wiley. * Kazdin, A.E. (1994). Behavior modification in applied settings (5th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Kazdin, A.E., & Bootzin, R.R. (1973). The token economy: An examination of issues. In R.D. Rubin, J.P. Brady, & J.D. Henderson (Eds.), Advances in behavior therapy (Vol. 4, pp. 159-176). New York: Academic Press. Kazdin, A.E., & Craighead, W.E. (1973). Behavior modification in special education. In L. Mann & D.A. Sabatino (Eds.), The first review of special education (Vol. 2, pp. 51-102). Philadelphia: Buttonwood Farms. * Krumboltz, J.D., & Krumboltz, H.B. (1972). Changing children's behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Leff, R. (1968). Behavior modification and the psychoses of childhood: A review. 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